When we think of wool, we might picture our favourite winter jumper, our grandmother knitting in a rocking chair, or perhaps a fluffy sheep grazing in the fields. Yet we rarely pause to consider the long and complex journey that transforms raw fleece into the wool we know and use. How does this transformation happen, and who are the people involved in shaping it?
Today, Europe continues to import tens of millions of kilos of raw wool each year from countries such as Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. At the same time, a significant share of European wool remains under-collected or undervalued, often ending up stockpiled, landfilled, or even destroyed. Although EU-wide data on wool waste are still limited, evidence from national reports and environmental agencies highlights the urgency of relocalising and revitalising Europe’s wool industry. Yet, as Europeans we have a rich history of wool. For millenia we have been gathering and using wool grown from our shores, and still today, many continue this rich history and valorise the legacy and reputation of European wool.
Given the importance of this topic, we have a full article dedicated to wool and sustainability that you can read here.
One inspiring initiative addressing this challenge is Lainamac, founded in 2009 in France. Lainamac is engaged throughout the entire wool value chain, from sourcing raw fleece to producing finished textiles, and works to strengthen and reconnect all the links between breeders, processors, artisans, and designers. The organisation promotes the use of locally produced fibres, supports the revival of traditional spinning and weaving know-how, and fosters innovation in sustainable materials and design. Through training, research, and collaborative projects, Lainamac ensures that each stage of wool processing, washing, carding, spinning, dyeing, weaving, and finishing. By doing so, it helps build a circular and resilient wool economy rooted in both cultural heritage and modern ecological values.
Mad’in Europe invites you to a European wool journey, stretching from the Outer Hebrides to Georgia, which tells a story, step by step, that is vast, intricate, and deeply human.
Raising Sheep
Whilst wool can come from a variety of animals such as Cachemire and Angora goats (cashmere and mohair), Angora rabbits (angora), Merino and Wensleydale sheep, and alpacas that are from the family of camels, it is true that most wool comes from sheep. When it comes to wool-based crafts, knowledge must begin with the animals.
For those who work with wool, their job starts with the sheep. No project, whether a scarf, tapestry, or blanket, can begin until the right wool is selected. Wool artist Julia Desch explains that those who work with wool must possess a deep understanding of its origins.
For example, Desch’s wool of preference is Wensleydale wool, named after the picturesque rolling valleys of Wensleydale, North Yorkshire. Prised for its silky texture and depth of colour when dyed, the wool is a firm favourite among knitters, weavers, and felt artists alike.
Kelly Macdonald of the Harris Tweed Authority echoes this sentiment. Although the Outer Hebrides are significant crofting communities, the sheep native to the islands are not suitable for the type of tweed produced there. Instead, Hebridean sheep tend to have coarser wool, more fit for rugs, explains Macdonald. Whatever one chooses to do with wool, it all begins with an in-depth knowledge of and respect for the source.
Shearing
This respect for the animals continues throughout the process. Out of consideration for their wellbeing, shearing usually takes place once a year. This helps the sheep feel cooler as the summer months approach and is also when the future wool and yarn are collected. However, once the fleece is sheared, the work has only just begun. You can by no means start knitting yet.
Scouring
The next stage involves scouring, a lesser-known but vital skill to those outside the wool-making process. Scouring essentially means cleaning the wool and removing any contaminants from the raw fibre. It is a task that requires care, precision, and patience.
Carding and Spinning
To transform the raw fleece into something that resembles the yarn we know, the wool must first be carded. This process involves combing the fibres with fine metal teeth to align them neatly. Once carded, the wool is spun into yarn. This stage demands both mechanical precision and a material intuition that can only be developed after countless hours spent learning to sense and understand the fibres.
Spinning, though often hidden from view, is one of the most technically demanding parts of the process. It requires an understanding of fibre behaviour, humidity, and even air temperature. In smaller workshops, it may be done by hand or with traditional spinning wheels, while larger mills use energy-efficient machinery that maintains consistency without sacrificing quality. Either way, spinning remains a craft rooted in touch and timing.
Dyeing
Before or after spinning, the wool may be dyed. Natural dyes made from plants, roots, or minerals are once again finding favour for their lower environmental impact. Master dyers rely on experience to predict how each fibre will absorb colour, adjusting temperature and timing to achieve the desired shade.
Tamar Sujashvili’s dyeing process and ingredients
For Tamar Sujashvili , natural dyeing is not only an invaluable process but also one that encourages sustainability and respect for the natural world. She uses a wide range of dyes varying from onion, to turmeric to pommegranite to henna. After all, she explains, this is what our ancestors have done since the dawn of time. Wool may be a vast industry, but there is great merit in returning to the methods of old. Not only does using what we have in our gardens reduce emissions, but there is also a beauty in recreating the wool that has kept us warm for centuries. These traditional techniques hold lasting value and remind us of the importance of preserving old knowledge and skills, which are just as relevant today, if not more so, in an age of mass production.
Weaving
Once the yarn is spun, it is ready to become cloth or finished pieces. Here, technical precision meets creative instinct, and wool proves just how adaptable it truly is. Weaving, knitting, and felting each demand their own rhythm and intuition, skills honed through years of practice.
Weaving interlaces warp and weft threads on a loom to create fabric. The weaver must hold tension steady across hundreds of fine strands while shaping structure and pattern through movement and touch. A small adjustment whether that be tightening a thread or altering the weave, can shift the texture entirely. In experienced hands, the loom becomes more than a tool; it extends the weaver’s sense of rhythm and control. This can happen anywhere, from large industrial mills to small home studios.
Becca Hutton, who produces Harris Tweed, has a preference for old-fashioned looms. Why, you may wonder? Doesn’t that hinder productivity? Not at all. According to the Harris native, the old machines were built to last and have certainly lived up to that.
“It hasn’t failed me yet,” Rebecca tells me, giving her old loom a reassuring knock.
Meanwhile in Spain, based in a restored 13th-century Cistercian monastery near Segovia, ÁBBATTE produces hand-woven textiles made from natural fibres including wool. Ábbatte successfully weaves traditional craftsmanship with sustainable practices, using natural plant dyes and manually operated looms that require minimal electricity.
Across the border in Portugal, the Weaving Workshop in Minde, part of the Roque Gameiro Arts and Crafts Centre, preserves the traditional production of the Manta de Minde, a traditional wool blanket. Three young weavers operate manual wooden looms, using 100% Portuguese wool and techniques passed down through generations. Every stage from carding, spinning, warping, threading, weaving, and hemming, is done entirely by hand, following traditional methods that ensure the distinctive density and durability of the fabric.
As both a working production space and an interpretative centre, the Workshop serves as a living school, ensuring the transmission of skills and cultural memory while linking ancestral craft to contemporary design and markets.
Atelier de Tecelagem
Knitting
Knitting, whether by hand or with small machines, works differently. It turns continuous yarn into loops that give fabric flexibility and lightness. Skilled knitters read their stitches almost like reading music, responding to the yarn’s weight and twist to shape drape and texture. Tiny changes in tension alter the outcome, making experience and feel as important as technique.
On the beautiful island of Bornholm, Denmark, we discovered Kokolores, run by Timmi B. Kromann. A self-described “maker”, she crafts a wide array of knitted creations. When Timmi first began selling her knitted goods in 2001, she knew she needed a purpose. With so much wool waste already in the world, she decided to source deadstock fabrics to give discarded materials new life.
Timmi B Kromann at work at Kokolores
Espace Tapisserie Aubusson SAS
Tapestry
In the world of wool crafts another outlet for creation involves tapestry. A tapestry of a style of woven textile art. Often made by hand on a loom, coloured threads are woven together to create images of patterns. Unlike printed or embroidered fabrics, the design is part of the cloth itself.
One of the well known locations for tapestry creation can be found in a small town in the Creuse department of France, Aubusson. In fact, Aubusson tapestry was placed onto UNESCO’S Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity in 2009. At Espace Tapisserie Aubusson SAS, highly trained professionals, Evelyne and Jean-Marie Dor, have been restoring tapestries including ones for the french state. On top of this work the pair also deliver workshops, helping pass on their over three decades of crafting experience to clients, both professional and amateur.
Felting
Felting works from another direction. Using moisture, heat, and pressure, loose fibres fuse together into a dense, solid material without weaving or stitching. It is one of the oldest textile methods, grounded entirely in touch and timing. The felt maker must sense when the fibres have bonded enough to hold their shape but still retain softness and flexibility.
Georgia-based artist Ia Gulisashvili favours wet felting. The freedom this technique offers allows her to create garments that remain modern yet distinctly felted in quality. Like Timmi, she values sustainable methods, often using eco-friendly materials. She is another example of how wool can be incredibly sustainable.
Ia Gulisashvili’s creations
All the aforementioned steps depend on knowledge that is both practical and embodied. Makers learn through repetition, building an instinct for how wool behaves under their hands. Machines can replicate certain steps, but the subtle decisions that define quality—how tightly to twist, how firmly to press, when to stop—still rely on human judgement.
Wool as an enduring craft
Wool takes a long journey, with many steps, some hidden, others more visible. Yet one thing remains clear: from carding to knitting, working with wool is a craft as old as time. The wool industry is one where innovation and traditional know-how go hand in hand. These time-tested methods endure, both for their reliability and because wool itself is such a versatile and effective material. Many of those who work with wool, as highlighted above, stress the importance of taking heed of old techniques. Becca Hutton would not be the weaver she is today had the Isle of Harris not decided to launch weaving classes to help preserve the dwindling knowhow of old-loom weavers. Education is key in guaranteeing the transmission of these skills, new and old, to guarantee both ancient practices and inventive uses of wool can be continued for future generations.
A passionate defender of helping future generations embrace the ecological and cultural value of wool is Lorna McCormack. A highly skilled fibre artist from Ireland, she takes the journey of wool and brings it into schools. Her mission is to empower the next generation via wool, and help them see wool as a tool for creativity, well being and climate-conscious living.
Across the Irish sea in Scotland, Marion Foster also secures the futures of the traditions of old at the College of Master Kilt Tailors. The College of Master Kilt Tailors teaches and preserves the traditional art of tailoring kilts to the exacting standards of the Highland Regiment tailors—creating garments that are robust, elegant, and true to Scotland’s heritage. By documenting and sharing these authentic methods through education, the College protects the craftsmanship and cultural value of the bespoke kilt from being lost to mass-produced imitations.
Authenticity
Speaking of imitations, once this wide diversity of wool products are made, how can not just the skills behind but also the product themselves continue to be valued. As consumers, it is equally important to recognise not only the deep knowledge and skill embodied in every piece of wool work, but also to be mindful of authenticity. Harris Tweed, for instance, is a powerful reminder that true craftsmanship carries both heritage and innovation. Only fabric woven in the Outer Hebrides, under the Harris Tweed Act of 1993, may bear the famous Orb mark, a guarantee of origin, skill, and integrity. In a world full of imitations, choosing authentic materials supports not just quality, but the people and places that keep these living traditions alive.
This Act ensures that every metre of genuine Harris Tweed is handwoven by islanders in their homes, using pure virgin wool dyed and spun in the Outer Hebrides. Each thread thus carries the story of a landscape and its community, the wind, the sea, the hands that work the looms. By protecting this heritage through strict labelling and certification, the Harris Tweed Authority preserves not only a fabric but also an entire way of life. Supporting such authenticity helps safeguard the continuity of craftsmanship, ensuring that future generations can inherit the same standards of excellence, creativity, and care.
For this reason, it is crucial to support the many workshops or schools , no matter how small or large, because so much is to be learned from the ways of old. And once those skills have been acquired, the possibilities with wool are endless.
The Orb emblem that symbolises authentic Harris Tweed®.
So next time you put on a jumper, remember that long before it reached your wardrobe, the wool passed through many skilled hands and machines, guided by a wealth of insight and experience.
